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<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta http-equiv="X-UA-Compatible" content="IE=Edge" /> <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" /> <title>6. Modules — Python 2.7.16 documentation</title> <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/classic.css" type="text/css" /> <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" /> <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="../" src="../_static/documentation_options.js"></script> <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/jquery.js"></script> <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/underscore.js"></script> <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/doctools.js"></script> <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/sidebar.js"></script> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" title="Search within Python 2.7.16 documentation" href="../_static/opensearch.xml"/> <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="../about.html" /> <link rel="index" title="Index" href="../genindex.html" /> <link rel="search" title="Search" href="../search.html" /> <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="../copyright.html" /> <link rel="next" title="7. Input and Output" href="inputoutput.html" /> <link rel="prev" title="5. Data Structures" href="datastructures.html" /> <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="../_static/py.png" /> <link rel="canonical" href="https://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/modules.html" /> <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/copybutton.js"></script> </head><body> <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation"> <h3>Navigation</h3> <ul> <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px"> <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index" accesskey="I">index</a></li> <li class="right" > <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index" >modules</a> |</li> <li class="right" > <a href="inputoutput.html" title="7. Input and Output" accesskey="N">next</a> |</li> <li class="right" > <a href="datastructures.html" title="5. Data Structures" accesskey="P">previous</a> |</li> <li><img src="../_static/py.png" alt="" style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li> <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> »</li> <li> <a href="../index.html">Python 2.7.16 documentation</a> » </li> <li class="nav-item nav-item-1"><a href="index.html" accesskey="U">The Python Tutorial</a> »</li> </ul> </div> <div class="document"> <div class="documentwrapper"> <div class="bodywrapper"> <div class="body" role="main"> <div class="section" id="modules"> <span id="tut-modules"></span><h1>6. Modules<a class="headerlink" href="#modules" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1> <p>If you quit from the Python interpreter and enter it again, the definitions you have made (functions and variables) are lost. Therefore, if you want to write a somewhat longer program, you are better off using a text editor to prepare the input for the interpreter and running it with that file as input instead. This is known as creating a <em>script</em>. As your program gets longer, you may want to split it into several files for easier maintenance. You may also want to use a handy function that you’ve written in several programs without copying its definition into each program.</p> <p>To support this, Python has a way to put definitions in a file and use them in a script or in an interactive instance of the interpreter. Such a file is called a <em>module</em>; definitions from a module can be <em>imported</em> into other modules or into the <em>main</em> module (the collection of variables that you have access to in a script executed at the top level and in calculator mode).</p> <p>A module is a file containing Python definitions and statements. The file name is the module name with the suffix <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.py</span></code> appended. Within a module, the module’s name (as a string) is available as the value of the global variable <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__name__</span></code>. For instance, use your favorite text editor to create a file called <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fibo.py</span></code> in the current directory with the following contents:</p> <div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1"># Fibonacci numbers module</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">fib</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="c1"># write Fibonacci series up to n</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span> <span class="k">while</span> <span class="n">b</span> <span class="o"><</span> <span class="n">n</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">print</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="n">b</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">fib2</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="c1"># return Fibonacci series up to n</span> <span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span> <span class="k">while</span> <span class="n">b</span> <span class="o"><</span> <span class="n">n</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">result</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">b</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="n">b</span> <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">result</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>Now enter the Python interpreter and import this module with the following command:</p> <div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">fibo</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>This does not enter the names of the functions defined in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fibo</span></code> directly in the current symbol table; it only enters the module name <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fibo</span></code> there. Using the module name you can access the functions:</p> <div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">fibo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fib</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1000</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="go">1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377 610 987</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">fibo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fib2</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">100</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="go">[1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89]</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">fibo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="go">'fibo'</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>If you intend to use a function often you can assign it to a local name:</p> <div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">fib</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">fibo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fib</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">fib</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">500</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="go">1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377</span> </pre></div> </div> <div class="section" id="more-on-modules"> <span id="tut-moremodules"></span><h2>6.1. More on Modules<a class="headerlink" href="#more-on-modules" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2> <p>A module can contain executable statements as well as function definitions. These statements are intended to initialize the module. They are executed only the <em>first</em> time the module name is encountered in an import statement. <a class="footnote-reference" href="#id2" id="id1">[1]</a> (They are also run if the file is executed as a script.)</p> <p>Each module has its own private symbol table, which is used as the global symbol table by all functions defined in the module. Thus, the author of a module can use global variables in the module without worrying about accidental clashes with a user’s global variables. On the other hand, if you know what you are doing you can touch a module’s global variables with the same notation used to refer to its functions, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">modname.itemname</span></code>.</p> <p>Modules can import other modules. It is customary but not required to place all <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#import"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code></a> statements at the beginning of a module (or script, for that matter). The imported module names are placed in the importing module’s global symbol table.</p> <p>There is a variant of the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#import"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code></a> statement that imports names from a module directly into the importing module’s symbol table. For example:</p> <div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">fibo</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">fib</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">fib2</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">fib</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">500</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="go">1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>This does not introduce the module name from which the imports are taken in the local symbol table (so in the example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fibo</span></code> is not defined).</p> <p>There is even a variant to import all names that a module defines:</p> <div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">fibo</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">fib</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">500</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="go">1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>This imports all names except those beginning with an underscore (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_</span></code>).</p> <p>Note that in general the practice of importing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*</span></code> from a module or package is frowned upon, since it often causes poorly readable code. However, it is okay to use it to save typing in interactive sessions.</p> <p>If the module name is followed by <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#as"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">as</span></code></a>, then the name following <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#as"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">as</span></code></a> is bound directly to the imported module.</p> <div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">fibo</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="nn">fib</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">fib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fib</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">500</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="go">0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>This is effectively importing the module in the same way that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">fibo</span></code> will do, with the only difference of it being available as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fib</span></code>.</p> <p>It can also be used when utilising <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#from"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span></code></a> with similar effects:</p> <div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">fibo</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">fib</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">fibonacci</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">fibonacci</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">500</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="go">0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377</span> </pre></div> </div> <div class="admonition note"> <p class="first admonition-title">Note</p> <p class="last">For efficiency reasons, each module is only imported once per interpreter session. Therefore, if you change your modules, you must restart the interpreter – or, if it’s just one module you want to test interactively, use <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#reload" title="reload"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reload()</span></code></a>, e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reload(modulename)</span></code>.</p> </div> <div class="section" id="executing-modules-as-scripts"> <span id="tut-modulesasscripts"></span><h3>6.1.1. Executing modules as scripts<a class="headerlink" href="#executing-modules-as-scripts" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3> <p>When you run a Python module with</p> <div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">python</span> <span class="n">fibo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span> <span class="o"><</span><span class="n">arguments</span><span class="o">></span> </pre></div> </div> <p>the code in the module will be executed, just as if you imported it, but with the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__name__</span></code> set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">"__main__"</span></code>. That means that by adding this code at the end of your module:</p> <div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s2">"__main__"</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sys</span> <span class="n">fib</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">argv</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]))</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>you can make the file usable as a script as well as an importable module, because the code that parses the command line only runs if the module is executed as the “main” file:</p> <div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python fibo.py <span class="m">50</span> <span class="go">1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>If the module is imported, the code is not run:</p> <div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">fibo</span> <span class="go">>>></span> </pre></div> </div> <p>This is often used either to provide a convenient user interface to a module, or for testing purposes (running the module as a script executes a test suite).</p> </div> <div class="section" id="the-module-search-path"> <span id="tut-searchpath"></span><h3>6.1.2. The Module Search Path<a class="headerlink" href="#the-module-search-path" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3> <p id="index-0">When a module named <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spam</span></code> is imported, the interpreter first searches for a built-in module with that name. If not found, it then searches for a file named <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spam.py</span></code> in a list of directories given by the variable <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a>. <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a> is initialized from these locations:</p> <ul class="simple"> <li>the directory containing the input script (or the current directory).</li> <li><span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONPATH"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONPATH</span></code></a> (a list of directory names, with the same syntax as the shell variable <span class="target" id="index-2"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PATH</span></code>).</li> <li>the installation-dependent default.</li> </ul> <p>After initialization, Python programs can modify <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a>. The directory containing the script being run is placed at the beginning of the search path, ahead of the standard library path. This means that scripts in that directory will be loaded instead of modules of the same name in the library directory. This is an error unless the replacement is intended. See section <a class="reference internal" href="#tut-standardmodules"><span class="std std-ref">Standard Modules</span></a> for more information.</p> </div> <div class="section" id="compiled-python-files"> <h3>6.1.3. “Compiled” Python files<a class="headerlink" href="#compiled-python-files" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3> <p>As an important speed-up of the start-up time for short programs that use a lot of standard modules, if a file called <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spam.pyc</span></code> exists in the directory where <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spam.py</span></code> is found, this is assumed to contain an already-“byte-compiled” version of the module <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spam</span></code>. The modification time of the version of <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spam.py</span></code> used to create <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spam.pyc</span></code> is recorded in <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spam.pyc</span></code>, and the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> file is ignored if these don’t match.</p> <p>Normally, you don’t need to do anything to create the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spam.pyc</span></code> file. Whenever <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spam.py</span></code> is successfully compiled, an attempt is made to write the compiled version to <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spam.pyc</span></code>. It is not an error if this attempt fails; if for any reason the file is not written completely, the resulting <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spam.pyc</span></code> file will be recognized as invalid and thus ignored later. The contents of the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spam.pyc</span></code> file are platform independent, so a Python module directory can be shared by machines of different architectures.</p> <p>Some tips for experts:</p> <ul> <li><p class="first">When the Python interpreter is invoked with the <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-o"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-O</span></code></a> flag, optimized code is generated and stored in <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyo</span></code> files. The optimizer currently doesn’t help much; it only removes <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#assert"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assert</span></code></a> statements. When <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-o"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-O</span></code></a> is used, <em>all</em> <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytecode"><span class="xref std std-term">bytecode</span></a> is optimized; <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> files are ignored and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.py</span></code> files are compiled to optimized bytecode.</p> </li> <li><p class="first">Passing two <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-o"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-O</span></code></a> flags to the Python interpreter (<a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-oo"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-OO</span></code></a>) will cause the bytecode compiler to perform optimizations that could in some rare cases result in malfunctioning programs. Currently only <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__doc__</span></code> strings are removed from the bytecode, resulting in more compact <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyo</span></code> files. Since some programs may rely on having these available, you should only use this option if you know what you’re doing.</p> </li> <li><p class="first">A program doesn’t run any faster when it is read from a <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> or <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyo</span></code> file than when it is read from a <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.py</span></code> file; the only thing that’s faster about <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> or <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyo</span></code> files is the speed with which they are loaded.</p> </li> <li><p class="first">When a script is run by giving its name on the command line, the bytecode for the script is never written to a <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> or <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyo</span></code> file. Thus, the startup time of a script may be reduced by moving most of its code to a module and having a small bootstrap script that imports that module. It is also possible to name a <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> or <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyo</span></code> file directly on the command line.</p> </li> <li><p class="first">It is possible to have a file called <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spam.pyc</span></code> (or <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spam.pyo</span></code> when <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-o"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-O</span></code></a> is used) without a file <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spam.py</span></code> for the same module. This can be used to distribute a library of Python code in a form that is moderately hard to reverse engineer.</p> </li> <li id="index-3"><p class="first">The module <a class="reference internal" href="../library/compileall.html#module-compileall" title="compileall: Tools for byte-compiling all Python source files in a directory tree."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compileall</span></code></a> can create <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> files (or <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyo</span></code> files when <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-o"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-O</span></code></a> is used) for all modules in a directory.</p> </li> </ul> </div> </div> <div class="section" id="standard-modules"> <span id="tut-standardmodules"></span><h2>6.2. Standard Modules<a class="headerlink" href="#standard-modules" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2> <p id="index-4">Python comes with a library of standard modules, described in a separate document, the Python Library Reference (“Library Reference” hereafter). Some modules are built into the interpreter; these provide access to operations that are not part of the core of the language but are nevertheless built in, either for efficiency or to provide access to operating system primitives such as system calls. The set of such modules is a configuration option which also depends on the underlying platform. For example, the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">winreg</span></code> module is only provided on Windows systems. One particular module deserves some attention: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#module-sys" title="sys: Access system-specific parameters and functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys</span></code></a>, which is built into every Python interpreter. The variables <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.ps1</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.ps2</span></code> define the strings used as primary and secondary prompts:</p> <div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sys</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ps1</span> <span class="go">'>>> '</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ps2</span> <span class="go">'... '</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ps1</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">'C> '</span> <span class="go">C> print 'Yuck!'</span> <span class="go">Yuck!</span> <span class="go">C></span> </pre></div> </div> <p>These two variables are only defined if the interpreter is in interactive mode.</p> <p>The variable <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code> is a list of strings that determines the interpreter’s search path for modules. It is initialized to a default path taken from the environment variable <span class="target" id="index-5"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONPATH"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONPATH</span></code></a>, or from a built-in default if <span class="target" id="index-6"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONPATH"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONPATH</span></code></a> is not set. You can modify it using standard list operations:</p> <div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sys</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">'/ufs/guido/lib/python'</span><span class="p">)</span> </pre></div> </div> </div> <div class="section" id="the-dir-function"> <span id="tut-dir"></span><h2>6.3. The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#dir" title="dir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dir()</span></code></a> Function<a class="headerlink" href="#the-dir-function" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2> <p>The built-in function <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#dir" title="dir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dir()</span></code></a> is used to find out which names a module defines. It returns a sorted list of strings:</p> <div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">fibo</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">sys</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="nb">dir</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fibo</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="go">['__name__', 'fib', 'fib2']</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="nb">dir</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="go">['__displayhook__', '__doc__', '__excepthook__', '__name__', '__package__',</span> <span class="go"> '__stderr__', '__stdin__', '__stdout__', '_clear_type_cache',</span> <span class="go"> '_current_frames', '_getframe', '_mercurial', 'api_version', 'argv',</span> <span class="go"> 'builtin_module_names', 'byteorder', 'call_tracing', 'callstats',</span> <span class="go"> 'copyright', 'displayhook', 'dont_write_bytecode', 'exc_clear', 'exc_info',</span> <span class="go"> 'exc_traceback', 'exc_type', 'exc_value', 'excepthook', 'exec_prefix',</span> <span class="go"> 'executable', 'exit', 'flags', 'float_info', 'float_repr_style',</span> <span class="go"> 'getcheckinterval', 'getdefaultencoding', 'getdlopenflags',</span> <span class="go"> 'getfilesystemencoding', 'getobjects', 'getprofile', 'getrecursionlimit',</span> <span class="go"> 'getrefcount', 'getsizeof', 'gettotalrefcount', 'gettrace', 'hexversion',</span> <span class="go"> 'long_info', 'maxint', 'maxsize', 'maxunicode', 'meta_path', 'modules',</span> <span class="go"> 'path', 'path_hooks', 'path_importer_cache', 'platform', 'prefix', 'ps1',</span> <span class="go"> 'py3kwarning', 'setcheckinterval', 'setdlopenflags', 'setprofile',</span> <span class="go"> 'setrecursionlimit', 'settrace', 'stderr', 'stdin', 'stdout', 'subversion',</span> <span class="go"> 'version', 'version_info', 'warnoptions']</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>Without arguments, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#dir" title="dir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dir()</span></code></a> lists the names you have defined currently:</p> <div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">fibo</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">fib</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">fibo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fib</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="nb">dir</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="go">['__builtins__', '__name__', '__package__', 'a', 'fib', 'fibo', 'sys']</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>Note that it lists all types of names: variables, modules, functions, etc.</p> <p id="index-7"><a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#dir" title="dir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dir()</span></code></a> does not list the names of built-in functions and variables. If you want a list of those, they are defined in the standard module <a class="reference internal" href="../library/__builtin__.html#module-__builtin__" title="__builtin__: The module that provides the built-in namespace."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__builtin__</span></code></a>:</p> <div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">__builtin__</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="nb">dir</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">__builtin__</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="go">['ArithmeticError', 'AssertionError', 'AttributeError', 'BaseException',</span> <span class="go"> 'BufferError', 'BytesWarning', 'DeprecationWarning', 'EOFError',</span> <span class="go"> 'Ellipsis', 'EnvironmentError', 'Exception', 'False', 'FloatingPointError',</span> <span class="go"> 'FutureWarning', 'GeneratorExit', 'IOError', 'ImportError', 'ImportWarning',</span> <span class="go"> 'IndentationError', 'IndexError', 'KeyError', 'KeyboardInterrupt',</span> <span class="go"> 'LookupError', 'MemoryError', 'NameError', 'None', 'NotImplemented',</span> <span class="go"> 'NotImplementedError', 'OSError', 'OverflowError',</span> <span class="go"> 'PendingDeprecationWarning', 'ReferenceError', 'RuntimeError',</span> <span class="go"> 'RuntimeWarning', 'StandardError', 'StopIteration', 'SyntaxError',</span> <span class="go"> 'SyntaxWarning', 'SystemError', 'SystemExit', 'TabError', 'True',</span> <span class="go"> 'TypeError', 'UnboundLocalError', 'UnicodeDecodeError',</span> <span class="go"> 'UnicodeEncodeError', 'UnicodeError', 'UnicodeTranslateError',</span> <span class="go"> 'UnicodeWarning', 'UserWarning', 'ValueError', 'Warning',</span> <span class="go"> 'ZeroDivisionError', '_', '__debug__', '__doc__', '__import__',</span> <span class="go"> '__name__', '__package__', 'abs', 'all', 'any', 'apply', 'basestring',</span> <span class="go"> 'bin', 'bool', 'buffer', 'bytearray', 'bytes', 'callable', 'chr',</span> <span class="go"> 'classmethod', 'cmp', 'coerce', 'compile', 'complex', 'copyright',</span> <span class="go"> 'credits', 'delattr', 'dict', 'dir', 'divmod', 'enumerate', 'eval',</span> <span class="go"> 'execfile', 'exit', 'file', 'filter', 'float', 'format', 'frozenset',</span> <span class="go"> 'getattr', 'globals', 'hasattr', 'hash', 'help', 'hex', 'id', 'input',</span> <span class="go"> 'int', 'intern', 'isinstance', 'issubclass', 'iter', 'len', 'license',</span> <span class="go"> 'list', 'locals', 'long', 'map', 'max', 'memoryview', 'min', 'next',</span> <span class="go"> 'object', 'oct', 'open', 'ord', 'pow', 'print', 'property', 'quit',</span> <span class="go"> 'range', 'raw_input', 'reduce', 'reload', 'repr', 'reversed', 'round',</span> <span class="go"> 'set', 'setattr', 'slice', 'sorted', 'staticmethod', 'str', 'sum', 'super',</span> <span class="go"> 'tuple', 'type', 'unichr', 'unicode', 'vars', 'xrange', 'zip']</span> </pre></div> </div> </div> <div class="section" id="packages"> <span id="tut-packages"></span><h2>6.4. Packages<a class="headerlink" href="#packages" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2> <p>Packages are a way of structuring Python’s module namespace by using “dotted module names”. For example, the module name <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A.B</span></code> designates a submodule named <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">B</span></code> in a package named <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A</span></code>. Just like the use of modules saves the authors of different modules from having to worry about each other’s global variable names, the use of dotted module names saves the authors of multi-module packages like NumPy or Pillow from having to worry about each other’s module names.</p> <p>Suppose you want to design a collection of modules (a “package”) for the uniform handling of sound files and sound data. There are many different sound file formats (usually recognized by their extension, for example: <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.wav</span></code>, <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.aiff</span></code>, <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.au</span></code>), so you may need to create and maintain a growing collection of modules for the conversion between the various file formats. There are also many different operations you might want to perform on sound data (such as mixing, adding echo, applying an equalizer function, creating an artificial stereo effect), so in addition you will be writing a never-ending stream of modules to perform these operations. Here’s a possible structure for your package (expressed in terms of a hierarchical filesystem):</p> <div class="highlight-text notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>sound/ Top-level package __init__.py Initialize the sound package formats/ Subpackage for file format conversions __init__.py wavread.py wavwrite.py aiffread.py aiffwrite.py auread.py auwrite.py ... effects/ Subpackage for sound effects __init__.py echo.py surround.py reverse.py ... filters/ Subpackage for filters __init__.py equalizer.py vocoder.py karaoke.py ... </pre></div> </div> <p>When importing the package, Python searches through the directories on <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code> looking for the package subdirectory.</p> <p>The <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__.py</span></code> files are required to make Python treat the directories as containing packages; this is done to prevent directories with a common name, such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">string</span></code>, from unintentionally hiding valid modules that occur later on the module search path. In the simplest case, <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__.py</span></code> can just be an empty file, but it can also execute initialization code for the package or set the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__all__</span></code> variable, described later.</p> <p>Users of the package can import individual modules from the package, for example:</p> <div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sound.effects.echo</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>This loads the submodule <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sound.effects.echo</span></code>. It must be referenced with its full name.</p> <div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">sound</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">effects</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">echo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">echofilter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">input</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">output</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">delay</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mf">0.7</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">atten</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">)</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>An alternative way of importing the submodule is:</p> <div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">sound.effects</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">echo</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>This also loads the submodule <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">echo</span></code>, and makes it available without its package prefix, so it can be used as follows:</p> <div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">echo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">echofilter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">input</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">output</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">delay</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mf">0.7</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">atten</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">)</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>Yet another variation is to import the desired function or variable directly:</p> <div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">sound.effects.echo</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">echofilter</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>Again, this loads the submodule <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">echo</span></code>, but this makes its function <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">echofilter()</span></code> directly available:</p> <div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">echofilter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">input</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">output</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">delay</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mf">0.7</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">atten</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">)</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>Note that when using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">package</span> <span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">item</span></code>, the item can be either a submodule (or subpackage) of the package, or some other name defined in the package, like a function, class or variable. The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code> statement first tests whether the item is defined in the package; if not, it assumes it is a module and attempts to load it. If it fails to find it, an <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#exceptions.ImportError" title="exceptions.ImportError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImportError</span></code></a> exception is raised.</p> <p>Contrarily, when using syntax like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">item.subitem.subsubitem</span></code>, each item except for the last must be a package; the last item can be a module or a package but can’t be a class or function or variable defined in the previous item.</p> <div class="section" id="importing-from-a-package"> <span id="tut-pkg-import-star"></span><h3>6.4.1. Importing * From a Package<a class="headerlink" href="#importing-from-a-package" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3> <p id="index-8">Now what happens when the user writes <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">sound.effects</span> <span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code>? Ideally, one would hope that this somehow goes out to the filesystem, finds which submodules are present in the package, and imports them all. This could take a long time and importing sub-modules might have unwanted side-effects that should only happen when the sub-module is explicitly imported.</p> <p>The only solution is for the package author to provide an explicit index of the package. The <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#import"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code></a> statement uses the following convention: if a package’s <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__.py</span></code> code defines a list named <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__all__</span></code>, it is taken to be the list of module names that should be imported when <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">package</span> <span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code> is encountered. It is up to the package author to keep this list up-to-date when a new version of the package is released. Package authors may also decide not to support it, if they don’t see a use for importing * from their package. For example, the file <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sound/effects/__init__.py</span></code> could contain the following code:</p> <div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">__all__</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">"echo"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">"surround"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">"reverse"</span><span class="p">]</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>This would mean that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">sound.effects</span> <span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code> would import the three named submodules of the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sound</span></code> package.</p> <p>If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__all__</span></code> is not defined, the statement <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">sound.effects</span> <span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code> does <em>not</em> import all submodules from the package <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sound.effects</span></code> into the current namespace; it only ensures that the package <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sound.effects</span></code> has been imported (possibly running any initialization code in <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__.py</span></code>) and then imports whatever names are defined in the package. This includes any names defined (and submodules explicitly loaded) by <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__.py</span></code>. It also includes any submodules of the package that were explicitly loaded by previous <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#import"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code></a> statements. Consider this code:</p> <div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sound.effects.echo</span> <span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sound.effects.surround</span> <span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">sound.effects</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="o">*</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>In this example, the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">echo</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">surround</span></code> modules are imported in the current namespace because they are defined in the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sound.effects</span></code> package when the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from...import</span></code> statement is executed. (This also works when <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__all__</span></code> is defined.)</p> <p>Although certain modules are designed to export only names that follow certain patterns when you use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code>, it is still considered bad practice in production code.</p> <p>Remember, there is nothing wrong with using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">Package</span> <span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">specific_submodule</span></code>! In fact, this is the recommended notation unless the importing module needs to use submodules with the same name from different packages.</p> </div> <div class="section" id="intra-package-references"> <h3>6.4.2. Intra-package References<a class="headerlink" href="#intra-package-references" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3> <p>The submodules often need to refer to each other. For example, the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">surround</span></code> module might use the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">echo</span></code> module. In fact, such references are so common that the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#import"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code></a> statement first looks in the containing package before looking in the standard module search path. Thus, the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">surround</span></code> module can simply use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">echo</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">echo</span> <span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">echofilter</span></code>. If the imported module is not found in the current package (the package of which the current module is a submodule), the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#import"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code></a> statement looks for a top-level module with the given name.</p> <p>When packages are structured into subpackages (as with the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sound</span></code> package in the example), you can use absolute imports to refer to submodules of siblings packages. For example, if the module <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sound.filters.vocoder</span></code> needs to use the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">echo</span></code> module in the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sound.effects</span></code> package, it can use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">sound.effects</span> <span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">echo</span></code>.</p> <p>Starting with Python 2.5, in addition to the implicit relative imports described above, you can write explicit relative imports with the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">module</span> <span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">name</span></code> form of import statement. These explicit relative imports use leading dots to indicate the current and parent packages involved in the relative import. From the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">surround</span></code> module for example, you might use:</p> <div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">.</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">echo</span> <span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">..</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">formats</span> <span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">..filters</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">equalizer</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>Note that both explicit and implicit relative imports are based on the name of the current module. Since the name of the main module is always <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">"__main__"</span></code>, modules intended for use as the main module of a Python application should always use absolute imports.</p> </div> <div class="section" id="packages-in-multiple-directories"> <h3>6.4.3. Packages in Multiple Directories<a class="headerlink" href="#packages-in-multiple-directories" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3> <p>Packages support one more special attribute, <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__path__</span></code>. This is initialized to be a list containing the name of the directory holding the package’s <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__.py</span></code> before the code in that file is executed. This variable can be modified; doing so affects future searches for modules and subpackages contained in the package.</p> <p>While this feature is not often needed, it can be used to extend the set of modules found in a package.</p> <p class="rubric">Footnotes</p> <table class="docutils footnote" frame="void" id="id2" rules="none"> <colgroup><col class="label" /><col /></colgroup> <tbody valign="top"> <tr><td class="label"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id1">[1]</a></td><td>In fact function definitions are also ‘statements’ that are ‘executed’; the execution of a module-level function definition enters the function name in the module’s global symbol table.</td></tr> </tbody> </table> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation"> <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper"> <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table Of Contents</a></h3> <ul> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#">6. Modules</a><ul> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#more-on-modules">6.1. More on Modules</a><ul> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#executing-modules-as-scripts">6.1.1. Executing modules as scripts</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-module-search-path">6.1.2. The Module Search Path</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#compiled-python-files">6.1.3. “Compiled” Python files</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#standard-modules">6.2. Standard Modules</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-dir-function">6.3. The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dir()</span></code> Function</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#packages">6.4. Packages</a><ul> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#importing-from-a-package">6.4.1. Importing * From a Package</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#intra-package-references">6.4.2. Intra-package References</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#packages-in-multiple-directories">6.4.3. Packages in Multiple Directories</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> <h4>Previous topic</h4> <p class="topless"><a href="datastructures.html" title="previous chapter">5. Data Structures</a></p> <h4>Next topic</h4> <p class="topless"><a href="inputoutput.html" title="next chapter">7. 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